African Musicology Online (AMO) is a Journal for interested music scholars from Africa and beyond. There have been many misconceptions, misrepresentations, and overgeneralizations about African music. Besides myriad problems in the study of African Musicology, there is a need to hear and consider the voices of owners of the music. African Musicology Online is published bi-annually in June and December.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Authors must distribute contributions under the same license as the original.
Repositioning Music Archives as Pedagogical Partners: Lecturer-Informed Strategies for University–Music Archive Collaboration in Kenya
The integration of music archives into university teaching in Kenya remains limited despite the cultural and pedagogical value of archival resources. Existing engagements between universities and music archives are often informal and dependent on individual lecturer initiative rather than structured institutional collaboration. Guided by Cultural-Historical Activity Theory, this paper examines lecturer-informed strategies for strengthening university–music archive collaboration in support of culturally responsive music teaching within selected Kenyan public universities. Drawing on Cultural-Historical Activity Theory, the study used lecturers’ perspectives to explore how interactions between universities and music archives are mediated by policies, institutional arrangements, and pedagogical practices. Qualitative data were generated through semi-structured interviews with music lecturers and analysed thematically. The findings reveal that effective collaboration requires a multi-level institutional approach beyond the mere availability of archival materials. Lecturers identified key strategies including formalised partnerships between universities and music archives, joint research and training initiatives, digitisation of archival collections, increased institutional funding, lecturer professional development, and community-engaged archival programmes. Although focused on selected Kenyan public universities, the study contributes to broader discussions on archives, institutional collaboration, and culturally responsive music pedagogy within African higher education. The study further highlights the need for structured institutional frameworks and policy alignment to strengthen the integration of African musical knowledge within higher education curricula.
Copyright (c) 2026 Tabitha Kwamboka Osoro, Jane C. Sinyei Mwonga https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Musicking Animal Crisis Narratives and Welfare Threats Occasioned by Drumming in Southwest Nigeria
This study explores animal crisis narratives and welfare threats triggered by the killing and use of animal body parts for drum-making in Southwest Nigeria. The Yorà¹bà¡ culture relies heavily on the use of animal body parts for food production and the making of drums. They also use animal parts for medicinal and spiritual fortification purposes. Despite this reality, studies on animal welfare from a musicological perspective are rare. This study, therefore, examines the threats to animal welfare and the destruction of animals as a result of the age-long drumming culture. Ethnographic methods were used to source data, including participant observation, interviews, music analysis, and textual analysis. Secondary data were sourced from books and relevant internet sources. Ecomusicology's theoretical framework was employed to bridge music, wildlife, environment, and culture to expose the hidden human music cruelties against animals. The levels of animal crisis narratives, animal welfare incursions, and animal brutalities were represented with the table of opportunity cost, and the percentage cost in economic terms were shown with multiple bar graphs. Findings further reveal the dangers of animals turned into capital and its attendant effects on human existence. The article argues that cruelty towards ecological features like animals, dismembering their body parts for drum-making, and exhibiting animals for money-making schemes is a danger to the ecosystem. The study seeks strong protection for animals, and an alternative, sustainable strategy for sourcing animal use in drum-making.
Copyright (c) 2026 Olufemi Akanji Olaleye, Kadupe Sofola https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Endingidi (Tubefiddle) Pedagogy in Bunyoro Kingdom: Individual Mastery, Narrative Transmission, and Solo Performance Traditions in Ugandan Music Education
This article examines Endingidi pedagogy in Bunyoro Kingdom, Uganda, analysing how this single-string tube-fiddle tradition transmits individual mastery, narrative competence, and solo performance skills across generations. Drawing on eighteen months of ethnographic fieldwork, participant observation, and in-depth interviews with seven master Endingidi performers, the study employs Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) within an integrated theoretical framework combining Community of Practice theory, Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development, ethnomusicological transmission theory, decolonial pedagogy, and embodied cognition. The study identifies seven analytically derived pedagogical principles: individual agency, narrative competence, technical mastery, improvisation, intimate performer-audience relationships, portable learning, and intergenerational mentorship. Crucially, for each principle, the study documents not merely what is learned but the processual HOW – the specific mechanisms through which integration is achieved. These mechanisms include the Graduated Release of Autonomy (GRA), parallel curriculum sequencing, periodic performance assessments, variation assignment pedagogy, audience reading exercises, contextual diversity strategy, and individualised ”˜reading the learner’ instruction. The findings challenge ensemble-centric assumptions in African music education scholarship, extend Community of Practice theory, and contribute a replicable decolonial pedagogical framework applicable to indigenous instrument education across sub-Saharan Africa.
Copyright (c) 2026 Nicholas Busobozi, Peter Ereu Ekadu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Is African music communal or a social ritual? An analysis of film music in Idrissa Ouédraogo’ s Yaaba and Biyi Bandele’s Elesin Oba: The King’s Horseman
Globally, there is a common understanding of what film sound and film music entail. However, since films are cultural and ideological products, their nuanced meanings could well be appreciated within their unique socio-cultural contexts. The purpose of this paper is to interrogate the extent to which African music functions as a communal art form and as a social ritual using a qualitative analysis of two films: Idrissa Ouédraogo’s Yaaba (1989) and Biyi Bandele’s Elesin Oba: The King’s Horseman (2022). Drawing from African aesthetic theory and extant literature, the paper explores how film music in the selected films articulate collective identity, express communal memory, and mediate social obligations. The findings suggest that musical traditions in African films sustain important cultural elements while functioning as both communal expressions and social rituals. Through close readings of musical sequences, the relationship between dialogue and music, and culturally grounded symbolic cues, the analysis demonstrates that African music in these films transcends mere entertainment; it performs communal bonding, reinforces cosmological worldviews, and structures ritual action. Yaaba foregrounds music as an everyday communal practice embedded in unity of purpose and intergenerational cohesion, while Elesin Oba situates music within sacred Yoruba cosmologies, emphasising its function in rites of passage, ancestral mediation, and social order. The paper argues that the cinematic soundtracks in both films embody culturally specific epistemologies in which music is a living, participatory force that shapes social experience, preserves indigenous aesthetics, and enacts the moral fabric of their respective societies.
Copyright (c) 2026 Joseph Aketema, Osakue Stevenson Omoera, Joseph Aketema https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Camouflaged Colonisation? Afrocentric Epistemologies and the Limits of Decolonisation in South African Musicology
This article investigates the implementation of decolonisation in South African higher education, with specific reference to musicology and curriculum studies, aiming to challenge the persistent dominance of Eurocentric knowledge. Despite growing attention to decolonial agendas, African epistemologies in musicology remain marginalised, and curricula frequently prioritise Western theories and frameworks. Superficial reforms risk symbolic rather than transformative change, leaving colonial knowledge hierarchies largely intact. This study addresses the gap in understanding how authentic Afrocentric epistemic integration can be achieved within South African university music curricula. Guided by Decolonial Theory, Afrocentricity, and Epistemic Justice, which emphasise recognising, validating, and centring indigenous knowledge systems, the research underscores the need for curriculum transformation. A descriptive qualitative literature review was conducted, analysing 25 peer-reviewed articles, books, and dissertations on decolonisation, Afrocentricity, and music education. Databases searched included JSTOR, EBSCOhost, ProQuest, ERIC, and Google Scholar. Sources were screened for relevance, and themes were synthesised around the integration of African music systems, the influence of Western frameworks, and strategies for promoting Afrocentric epistemic transformation. Findings reveal that African musical knowledge and indigenous pedagogies are often included superficially and interpreted through Western lenses. Afrocentric approaches, such as ubuntugogy, demonstrate potential to Africanise curricula, enhance student engagement, and preserve cultural heritage. Effective decolonisation requires structural support, policy alignment, faculty development, and the repositioning of African knowledge as foundational. The study concludes that meaningful decolonisation in South African musicology demands both epistemic and structural reforms, offering a framework for developing culturally responsive, transformative, and genuinely Afrocentric curricula.
Copyright (c) 2026 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
From the Communal Music Making to Deep Learning: AI, Copyright, and the Soul of African Music
This paper critically examines the impact of the Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) on the legal, economic and cultural integrity of African music. It discusses the reciprocity of intellectual property (IP) functionality and undermining of culture in the backdrop of algorithmic datafication. Based on the Postcolonial theory (more specifically, data-colonialism framework), the research analysis focuses on the process in which Global North technology corporations harvest cultural information of Global South producers through the expansion of Artificial Intelligence. Through the legal-ethnographic triangulation of legal analysis of the copyright regimes, together with extensive interviews of Kenyan creative professionals, the study reveals a structural imbalance between western standards of IP laws and African epistemology of oral traditions. Although AI is a source of universal precarity in the global community of creators, the results have shown a particular danger of ontological obliteration of African idioms, which occurs in the form of rhythmic flattening and digital orientalism. Additionally, the analysis also records the techniques Kenyan counter-movements, also known as digital resistance, use to deconstruct algorithmic quantisation and demand creative sovereignty. The paper concludes with an urgent appeal for decolonized IP frameworks, such as communal data trusts, to safeguard the essence, or sovereign intentionality, of African music.
Copyright (c) 2026 Amon Kipyegon Kirui, Tolu Owoaje https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Gospel Music Apprenticeship in the Black Church in South Africa
This paper explores avenues of music training for aspiring gospel musicians within Black South African Evangelical and Pentecostal church contexts. The research problem addressed is the limited documentation of how gospel musicians acquire and refine skills outside formal conservatories or universities. Interviews were conducted via Microsoft Teams with two formally trained musicians, two semi-retired gospel musicians, and a group of 15 scholars and practitioners with diverse training backgrounds. Transcriptions were analysed using Artificial Intelligence tools, yielding themes that inform the descriptive narrative. Findings reveal that church-based learning thrives on diverse pathways, from formal schooling to self-taught practices, though these generate contradictions and contestations. Competition between schooled and unschooled musicians fosters a healthy environment that motivates skill development, while frequent musical encounters provide consistent opportunities for practice. The study concludes that churches function as informal conservatories, producing numerous skilled musicians. It recommends that universities integrate church-based pedagogies into curricula to bridge academic training with community practice and validate indigenous approaches.
The Dichotomy Between Fela Aníkúlápó-Kuti's Revolutionary Iconicity and Wizkid's Global Stardom in the Nigerian Popular Music Continuum
Among Nigerian music enthusiasts, a recurring debate exists over the erroneous tendency to use the titles ”˜revolutionary icon’ and ”˜global superstar’ interchangeably, whereby a revolutionary icon is mislabelled as a global superstar, and vice versa. This study arises from fans’ reactions on social media to Seun Kuti’s recent livestream session, examining the dichotomy between two iconic artists in the Nigerian music continuum (Fela Anà­kàºlà¡pà³-Kuti and Ayodeji Ibrahim Balogun, alias Wizkid). This is with a view to shedding light on the differences between the archetype of the revolutionary icon and the global superstar, drawing on Olaniyan’s (2004) postcolonial theory and Emielu’s (2018) progressive traditionalism. The study employs a qualitative research design, drawing on both primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected through unstructured interviews with twelve participants. The sample consisted of six randomly selected fans for each artist, drawn equally from Osun, Oyo, and Lagos states, which are the hubs of the Nigerian music industry. The study also drew extensively on secondary sources, including books, journal articles, magazines, newspapers and online materials. A netnographic analysis of fan discourse was conducted across social media platforms, particularly Instagram, Facebook, TikTok, and X (formerly Twitter), to capture fans' perspectives within their digital communities. Findings revealed that while both titles command immense influence and recognition in the musical landscape, their influence stems from different sources. The study concludes that equating a revolutionary icon with a global superstar misconstrues artistic legacy, as each title represents a distinct, powerful, and legitimate path to cultural influence.
Copyright (c) 2026 Vincent Bamidele Omolaye https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Music Integration in Teacher Education: A Quantitative Descriptive Study of Trainer Music Skill in Abetifi Presbyterian College of Education, Ghana
This study examined basic education teacher trainers' exposure to music-related training and their competency in integrating traditional Ghanaian music (such as Kpanlogo, Adowa, and Agbadza) into basic school teaching. Using a quantitative descriptive design, a 28-item questionnaire (α = .85) was administered to 30 teacher trainers at Abetifi Presbyterian College of Education. Descriptive statistics summarized exposure and competency, while chi-square tests explored demographic differences. The findings revealed limited exposure to music-related training, with trainers averaging 3.47 hours of music instruction per semester and minimal engagement with traditional Ghanaian music. Competency was moderate, with lower confidence in teaching traditional forms. No significant demographic differences were found, though the small sample size limited statistical power. The single-site focus restricts generalization, and self-reported competency may reflect social desirability bias. These findings underscore the need for structured training in traditional music to support national curriculum expectations. Teacher education programs may benefit from increasing music training hours, providing traditional music workshops, and supplying resources to strengthen culturally relevant teaching. Addressing these gaps is vital for fostering a pedagogical civilizational cycle that preserves and promotes Ghanaian musical heritage.
Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Uptake of Chromatic Marimbas by Learning Institutions in Zimbabwe
The Zimbabwe marimba has become a popular school musical instrument since it was designed at Kwanongoma College of Music in the early 1960s. Two types of marimbas played in Zimbabwe are diatonic and chromatic marimbas. Most of the scholars who researched the Zimbabwe marimba focused more on diatonic marimbas, and this study draws attention to the adoption of chromatic marimbas in learning institutions in Zimbabwe. The purpose of this article was to examine the uptake of chromatic marimbas in primary and secondary schools, colleges, and universities in Zimbabwe. This study explores the advantages marimba players get when performing on chromatic marimbas, while highlighting the limitations of diatonic marimbas. The researchers used qualitative research methods to carry out this study, targeting learning institutions that offer music as a subject and marimbas as part of their practical performance curriculum. Interviews, document analysis, and participant observation were used as the data collection methods. Findings study show that the uptake of chromatic marimbas in Zimbabwean learning institutions is still very low, with most music departments still using the diatonic marimba sets. The researchers advocate that tertiary institutions equip trainee teachers and music specialist students with knowledge and skills to play chromatic marimbas, as this will enable them to disseminate these skills to their students after training. Chromatic marimba builders are encouraged to promote their sets by offering them to learning institutions at affordable prices for small profit margins that wield potential to attract more patronage.
Exploring Midlands’ Gweru-brood Music Artists and Music Producers’ pursuits of career success in Harare
The study looked at the quest for career success among music artists and music producers who were groomed in the Midlands Province. The study explored the motivation behind the selected music artists and music producers’ departure from Gweru to ply their trade in the Zimbabwe capital city Harare. Purposively selected artists and music producers from the Midlands Province were included in this study. We employed a qualitative research method with semi-structured interviews to solicit data from participants. A total of six participants, two music producers and four music artists tutored in the Midlands Province and relocated to Harare were sampled purposively. The resource dependence and social capital theories were used to guide analysis of data. The study reveals that in Harare there are more opportunities and chances for music artists and music producers’ growth and development. Participants submitted that in the Midlands Province, there is a lack of financial support, exposure, resource hubs and a vibrant arts society. Harare proffers an enabling ecosystem to music artists and music producers who work hard. The national televisions, radio stations and print media in Harare provide a positive environment to those in Harare, much to the disadvantage of the Midlands Province. The strong networks in both social media and mainstream media mostly benefit Harare dwellers. We thus recommend the establishment of more physical and digital networks across the Midlands Province to promote music artists, foster interaction, collaboration, enhance career success and visibility for the arts community beyond provincial and national boundaries.
From Roots to Reinvention: Evolutionary Trends in the Fuji Music of Wasiu Ayinde
Fàºjà¬ music, originally a socio-religious Islamic genre among the Yoruba of south-western Nigeria, has undergone significant transformation since it emerged from wéré performance traditions. While early innovations by pioneers like Alhaji Sà­kà­rà¹ à€yà¬ndé Barrister and Kollington Ayinla laid the groundwork, contemporary developments led by artistes like Wasiu à€yà¬ndé (K1 De Ultimate) have introduced diverse musical, linguistic, and stylistic elements that signify a dynamic shift. This paper investigates the evolutionary trends in à€yà¬ndé’s fàºjà¬ music, focusing on his integration of Western instruments, adaptation of multiple musical styles, bridging of religious gap, and strategic use of language to broaden his appeal. Grounded in the theory of cultural dynamism, the study conducts a content analysis of thirteen albums released between 1983 and 2020, uncovering trends of continuity and innovation. It reveals how à€yà¬ndé has managed to retain core traditional elements while responding to changing musical tastes and audience expectations. His fusion of Yorà¹bà¡ percussion with instruments like the saxophone, guitar, and keyboard, along with his latest collaborations with pop musicians, marks a significant phase in the genre’s development. This study contributes to musicological discourse on musical hybridity and expands scholarly understanding of how indigenous music traditions adapt and thrive in contemporary contexts. Creating archives of live performances and studio recordings and integrating the work of innovators like à€yà¬ndé into academic curricula, especially through ensembles, is essential for preserving the dynamic legacy of Nigerian Indigenous music and understanding its place in contemporary popular culture.
Beyond Gaudeamus Igitur: Decolonising South African Graduation Ceremonies
In South Africa, decolonisation efforts, exemplified by the #RhodesMustFall movement, have gained significant momentum. This article investigates the persistent challenge of decolonisation within academia, using the continued performance of Gaudeamus Igitur at African graduation ceremonies as a case study. Through observations, interviews, and Document Analysis, this study explores why some universities, particularly historically Black institutions, maintain this tradition. The analysis reveals a complex interplay of factors, including cultural identity politics, cultural representation, and institutional inertia that impede the full embrace of decoloniality. The conclusion may offer insights to inform policies and practices promoting the expression of diverse African identities in academic rituals.
Education and Practice of the Creative Arts in the Age of Digital Technology
“The creative arts” describes a wide range of arts in the humanities, comprising music, fine arts, and theatre arts, all of which deal with human creativity from various psycho-motor activities. The practice and teaching of the creative arts in the pre-digital era entail the use of analogies in the representation of reality and was characterised by the use of dedicated information storage and reproduction media. Hence, creative art education largely relied on teacher demonstrations within traditional classroom settings. The digital revolution, however, has provided alternative media in which the representation of real-life events now relies on successive dichotomy based on binary numbers to represent reality. This presents a more efficient and reliable representation that enables any form of data to be stored and reproduced using a single multimedia platform. Using Everett Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation theory, this paper undertakes a critical exploration of the education and practice of the creative arts in the age of digital technology. It engages a discourse of educational practices in the creative arts in the pre-digital age, examining the effects of the digital revolution on creative arts education, with a particular focus on music. In the creative arts, digital technology has provided tools with which artists can easily produce and express their creativity. In music especially, digital technology has impacted composition, performance, recording, distribution, analysis, and criticism. There is a need for music educators to engage students in the use of digital tools to boost productivity, especially those that relate to their areas of specialisation, to maintain their relevance in the labour market, especially as music-making and performance have become volatile. Although there are ethical concerns surrounding the use of digital tools, music educators should devise ways by which students can personalise their use in such ways that they do not lose their ability to think critically.
Epistemics of African Music Performance: Navigating Knowledge, Tradition, and the Digital Frontier
African music traditions are profound epistemic systems, embodying knowledge, history, and spirituality. This paper explores the rich epistemologies inherent in these traditions and examines the role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in their study and preservation. It critiques the pervasive epistemic bias in current AI technologies, advocating for culturally attuned systems developed through ethical community engagement, co-design, and culturally informed data collection. The paper presents case studies that illustrate how AI, when developed with bias mitigation strategies, can provide insightful analysis and support for diverse musical forms. Furthermore, it addresses the ethical considerations surrounding data sovereignty, informed consent, and equitable benefit sharing. Finally, the paper envisions the future of African music epistemology in the digital age, highlighting both the potential for AI to enrich musical landscapes and the critical challenges posed by digital divides, algorithmic bias, and cultural exploitation. The call is for an African-led approach to AI development that champions innovation, upholds cultural integrity, and ensures epistemic justice.
Contemporary Ideas in African Art Music Composition: An Exploration of the Vocal and Instrumental Works of Seun Owoaje
African art music continues to evolve through the contributions of contemporary composers who build on the legacies of their progenitors. Despite its growth, there has been a gap in the literature regarding its contemporary appeal, especially with respect to the works of modern African art music composers. Anchored on postcolonial theory, this study investigates the contemporary ideas shaping African art music composition by exploring the works of Seun Owoaje, a Nigerian composer known for his innovative integration of African musical idioms with Western structures. It aims to identify stylistic elements, thematic concerns, and compositional techniques employed by Seun Owoaje in his vocal and instrumental works. Adopting a qualitative design, data were sourced through in-depth oral interviews with the composer, coupled with analysis of his selected compositions. Seun Owoaje's music is informed by open-mindedness, creative ethnomusicology, social commentary, and inspiration from non-musical experiences. His works exhibit a deliberate blending of diverse musical traditions, reflect Yoruba cultural values, and offer philosophical insight on contemporary social issues through music commentary. The study contributes to the understanding of African art music as a platform for cultural reclamation and modern artistic expression, while providing valuable insights to teachers of music composition regarding blending innovative thinking with musical devices in the training of African art music composers. Research-based compositions should also be encouraged to blend indigenous elements with formal music training to ensure authenticity and innovation.
An analysis of Alick Macheso’s Music in Promoting Mediation and Conflict Resolution
Music has long been a powerful medium for social commentary, advocacy, and conflict resolution. In Zimbabwe, Alick Macheso’s music has emerged as a critical platform for addressing issues of peace, harmony, and interpersonal conflict. Through a qualitative approach, the paper explores how Macheso’s three purposively selected songs, Tererai, Kutadzirana, and Chikuru kurarama are useful as tools for communication, offering messages that encourage mediation, self-reflection, reconciliation and positive societal values. Drawing on critical discourse analysis and thematic interpretation, the study highlights how Macheso’s select lyrical content integrates traditional values, cultural metaphors, and everyday experiences to convey messages that resonate with his audience. Through using a contextualised appeal to his lyrics within Zimbabwe’s socio-political landscape, the paper examines the broader implications of his chosen songs to promote peace and resolve conflicts in communities. Findings suggest that Macheso’s music plays a significant role in fostering dialogue, challenging harmful behaviours, value to life, and inspiring collective response toward peaceful coexistence.
The Uptake of Live-streaming Technology among Zimbabwean Musicians and their Audiences
The advent of digital technology has resulted in new possibilities in the music industry as concerts are now accessible from any connected location on the globe. In recent years this has been coupled with the COVID-19 crisis that had a catastrophic impact on the music industry that sustains millions of employees such as performers, recording studios, and publishing companies. The purpose of this study was to examine the acceptance of live-streaming technology among Zimbabwean musicians and their audiences during and soon after the pandemic. This was qualitative research in which respondents were purposively selected. Netnography was used in which the study observed the use of live-streaming on digital platforms such as Gateway Stream, YouTube, and Facebook. Interviews were used to collect primary data, which was triangulated with observation and document analysis. Findings reveal that music live-streaming in Zimbabwe has network challenges and artists and fans end up preferring live performances. Collaboration between the music and IT industries can create Zimbabwe-owned platforms and software for affordability, compatibility, and ease of use. The researchers argue that artists should actively embrace technology to grow their fan bases and benefit from online presence. The study also recommends live-streaming physical performances for wider reach. Further research is needed to determine the income and effectiveness of live-streaming platforms.
Let a Woman Conduct: Gender Dynamics in Church Choral Ministries within the Baptist Churches of Southwestern Nigeria
The paper addresses women's participation in church choral ministries, focusing on women as conductors. Despite the growing recognition of women leaders, women's involvement in music ministries is often challenged by gender- and tradition-based barriers. The study examines how women overcome these barriers, shape worship styles, and enrich the church's spiritual and musical life. This study employs a qualitative research method, utilising in-depth interviews with 15 women choral conductors, surveys of 30 church music directors across various denominations, and a critical analysis of historical and contemporary literature. Thematic analysis was used to interpret qualitative data, identifying key themes related to gender dynamics, leadership experiences, and musical influence within church settings. The research is guided by feminist theory, as outlined by Hooks (2000), and ecclesiological theory proposed by Johnson (2015). The paper outlines how women have shaped worship experiences and congregations' spiritual and artistic identity through historical examples, personal narratives, and contemporary practice. By juxtaposing their leadership within the discourses of religion and art, this article pays tribute to women conductors who employ their batons to glorify God and inspire others in the sacred domain of church ministries. The paper concludes that to tap the full potential of women in church music, there needs to be a deconstruction of the gendered barriers that continue to constrain their leadership opportunities. Churches must proactively offer mentorship, professional training, and equal leadership roles for women. Future research should explore the impact of cultural and denominational variations on women's leadership equality in church music, investigate the long-term career trajectories of women conductors, and examine the role of theological education in shaping gender-inclusive music ministries.
From rebellion to revenue: Revisiting commercialisation and digital platforms in Kenyan political protest music
This study explores the commercialisation of Kenyan protest music and how it affects its original political intent, with a focus on the transition from underground struggle to mainstream success. It further examines how digital platforms, such as social media and music streaming services, have reshaped the dissemination, reach, and reception of protest music, influencing both its economic success and political efficacy. Anchored in Antonio Gramsci’s Cultural Hegemony Theory, this study explores how dominant cultural forces, such as the media and music industry, form popular ideologies and impact the political and economic roles of protest music. The research adopted a qualitative methodology, incorporating content analysis of chosen Kenyan protest songs and semi-structured interviews with Kenyan youth, particularly those involved in the recent Gen Z led protest in Kenya. The findings show significant growth in repurposed protest songs, driven by social media's role in their virality. These platforms, according to the findings, enhance accessibility, broadening audiences and boosting artists' critical and commercial success. Viral protest songs amplify public engagement with political issues, while commercialisation and digital platforms expand their reach and cultural impact, solidifying protest music as a powerful force. This study concludes that commercialisation and digital platforms contribute favourably to the transmission and influence of protest music, defying past notions regarding its dilution. Future studies should explore the potential development of Gramsci’s Cultural Hegemony Theory to include the transformative function of digital platforms in redefining cultural resistance.
An Analysis of Indigenisation Dynamics of Kenya Army Band Martial Music
The weakening of British rule and the eventual emancipation of Kenya from colonial control brought the promise of a free nation able to validate its indigeneity through art, culture, and music. However, the Kenyan army band martial music has not fully realised this potential. Sixty years after independence, the Kenya army band plays British-style music and has slowly adapted to indigenous music. This paper is part of a continuing study at Langata Garrison in Nairobi, the home of the Kenya Army Band. The study employed a qualitative approach and a case study research design to analyse selected martial music scores. The guiding theory for this study is Hungry Listening: Resonant Theory, which aims to deconstruct colonisation elements through decolonial listening. The study reveals that while some progress has been made in incorporating Indigenous music, a more deliberate and broad-based approach is needed to cut the umbilical cord of the colonised from the coloniser.
Tonality and Atonality of Speech Surrogacy as Resource for African Pianism
While a good portion of African traditional music exists in the song idiom, a sizable part of the music of indigenous Africa is expressed in the speech mode, seen predominantly in drums and other instruments performance. The resultant effect of speech mode in Indigenous African instrumental music is known as speech surrogacy, which is the utilising of musical instruments to communicate like in spoken words. This paper investigates the aspect of pitch organisation, within the context of tonality and atonality, in ”˜Verve Dialogues with à€jà ntà¡là¡', an ensemble piece by the author, in which the piano plays a prominent role, within the principles of African pianism and makes use of speech mode as it exists in Dà¹ndàºn tradition. Through the analysis of the case study piece, the extensive use of speech surrogacy in the piano part score and the process through which tonality and atonality lend credence to the ”˜traditionalisation’ of the piano as a modern African instrument – a practice now known as ”˜African Pianism’ is discussed. This paper ultimately presents the potential in the tonality and atonality of speech surrogacy as a tonal resource cardinal to evolving a viable model in African pianism.
Beyond the Studio: Tertiary Music Production Graduates in Kenya Pursuing Non-Production Roles
This study investigates the reasons behind music production graduates in Kenya moving away from production roles, with a focus on gaps in education and challenges in cultural competency. Through a qualitative research design employing semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with recent graduates in Nairobi County, the study utilizes Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory to analyse how graduates transform their educational experiences into professional capabilities. The findings reveal a significant theory-practice gap characterized by the dominance of Western musical paradigms in formal education, which creates substantial barriers for graduates engaging with local music production contexts. Additionally, the research identifies critical cultural competency challenges stemming from limited exposure to indigenous musical traditions during formal training. These challenges manifest in graduates' inability to produce commercially viable music that resonates with local audiences, often leading to career transitions into music education roles. The study demonstrates how the current educational framework creates what is termed an "impeded transformative experience," where graduates struggle to convert their academic knowledge into viable industry practice. The research concludes that successful reform of music production education in Kenya requires a holistic approach that addresses both technical competency and cultural literacy, suggesting the need for curriculum reforms that balance Western production techniques with local musical traditions while maintaining global industry standards. This transformation is essential for improving graduate outcomes and ensuring the sustainable development of Kenya's music industry.
Copyright (c) 2024 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Re-thinking inclusivity in music learning: The implications of multiple Ghanaian languages in Western-leaning music theory
This study explores the feasibility of incorporating Ghanaian languages into music theory and composition curricula that are mostly focused on Western traditions. It recognises the benefits and challenges associated with this endeavour. The study utilises a mixed-methods approach, acknowledging the necessity of incorporating both qualitative and quantitative data to comprehensively evaluate the various ramifications of this educational change. This approach enables a comprehensive comprehension of the cultural and cognitive effects, as well as the practical aspects of implementation. Integrating Ghanaian languages into the curriculum can improve cultural significance and student involvement, but research indicates that it should be done with care. The potential adverse impacts on standardised musical terminology and international communication necessitate thoughtful deliberation, promoting gradual incorporation rather than a total departure from English. Additional research is essential to investigate obstacles and devise efficient techniques for integrating Ghanaian languages into existing musical structures without compromising them. This study emphasises the necessity of adopting a well-rounded strategy that promotes the gradual incorporation of Ghanaian languages into music education, while still preserving the advantages of the existing English-based system.
Compositional militarisation of Nigerian art music for the orchestra in Ovaborhene Idamoyibo’s “Colonel Eru March”
A musical composition would be more appreciated if the inspirational, sociological, philosophical, and creative influences that informed its creation were elucidated and understood through analysis. This author contributes to knowledge growth in the foregoing perspective through a sociological and creative study of “Colonel Eru March”–an orchestra piece composed by Ovaborhene Idamoyibo through the creative utilisation of military ideologies, imageries, and rhythmic nuances. Through a combination of sociological, literary, and descriptive statistical analysis methods, the inspirational, philosophical, and creative premises of the piece are divulged. The composer’s style of intercultural creativity is also disclosed through a critical examination of the indigenous and foreign musical materials, idioms, and media synthesised in the piece.
Preserving the nyunganyunga mbira tunes through teaching and learning of performance using Sibelius 7
The study focused on preserving mbira tunes by using transcription with Sibelius 7. The researcher purposively selected (7 females and 8 males) music students to play the transcribed ”˜Bungautete’, ”˜Chigwaya’, ”˜Guva rangu’, and ”˜Nhemamusasa’ on the nyunganyunga mbira. Action research and the computer-assisted method guided the lessons. The study followed UNESCO’s decree on Safeguarding cultural heritage aiming to protect the world’s intangible cultural heritage through upholding practices, uses, and expression of knowledge that communities recognise as vital to their culture. The advent of computers in music education offers advantages to music educators and students to use emerging technologies in class. The nyunganyunga mbira in recent years gained recognition in primary, secondary and tertiary music education in Zimbabwe and beyond. Materials from the study are useful in teaching the nyunganyunga mbira to the current and future generations. The study proffers ways to preserve and present the tunes in print, PDF, audio, MP3, and MIDI formats as instructional materials. The study affords knowledge on how to use the software in teaching the nyunganyunga mbira. It also provides material and knowledge useful in schools, colleges, and universities in music education. Further studies may be needed to cater for other mbira types.
The Past, Present and Future of chimazambi instrument of the Ndau people of Zimbabwe
This research investigated the factors leading to the decline of the chimazambi musical instrument of the Ndau people of Rusitu Valley in Chimanimani District of Chief Ndima area, Manicaland Province in Zimbabwe. Chimazambi is a Ndau indigenous string instrument which is slightly similar to the chipendani of the Karanga people. While the instrument was performed by the Ndau people in the past, there is no adequate scholarship regarding the origin, use of instrument in the modern times and the future of chimazambi. The study therefore traces the origin of chimazambi instrument. It investigates ways in which the instrument was played as well as its purpose within the Ndau culture. The research adopted a qualitative method, an ethnographic field work. In depth interviews, participant observation, focus group discussions and document analysis were utilized to collect data. The study was mainly informed by postcolonial theory, supported by Ndau epistemologies. The findings indicate that chimazambi is central in the lives of the Ndau people. It has been revealed that chimazambi was well known for entertaining herd boys. The study further discovered that some identified elders were engaging chimazambi for spiritual healing purposes. Christianity, modernization and migration were discovered to be the major effects responsible for the decline of chimazambi. The study recommends the revitalization of the instrument through digitalizing, archiving and commercializing it. There is also a need to include the instrument in various modern ceremonies and festivals.
Primary school choir directors’ perceptions of motivation: Issues and way forward
Primary school choir directors are well placed to share their opinions on the role of motivation in choral music. Their perceptions are particularly significant to the development and appreciation of choral music preparations and performances. Informed by humanistic theories, this article explores primary school choir directors’ perception of the significance of motivation to the quality of choral preparations and performances and further explores the strategies behind participants’ motivation to undertake extra responsibilities. An exploratory qualitative case study design was employed to gather data from [N=20] twenty purposefully sampled choirmasters. Face to face interviews were carried out to solicit sentiments behind the choir directors’ motivation regarding the dual responsibility of a class teacher and school choir director. Findings reveal that motivation is an important factor in the achievement of desired outcomes. Choir directors have different forms of motivation, most of which were not appreciated to their satisfaction given the tasks and responsibilities that they accomplish. The study recommends that schools devise motivational strategies that inspire choir directors for the demanding extra responsibility.
The Biguine, masked musical identity of the 1930: A Creole eruption without words
The biguine experienced a “golden age” in Paris in the 1930s. The “identity” of this Caribbean music is not mysterious but undoubtedly underestimated. Disorganized, about the subject of media success, the thesis of this article bets that the identity of this biguine is “masked”. The mask operates on three levels: first obscured by the chimerical quest for a more authentic production ante eruptio (in reference to Pelee catastrophic volcano eruption of 1902). Then by the mask of the ruses/opportunities of history which allow it to express itself "outside" any institutional framework. Finally, the mask in its “twin” but untheorized relationship of the contemporary foundation of the black identity of the New Harlem Renaissance and the Négritude of the Nardal sisters and Aimé Césaire. At a time when musical creation found renewed interest and inspiration around this period, the functioning of these mask mechanisms gave pride of place to women laying the base for the interest of this article.
Free music streaming for Kenyan independent artists: A blessing in disguise?
The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has left an indelible mark on the music industry, driven by technological innovations. In Kenya, on-demand music streaming and downloading platforms have emerged as potent tools, empowering independent artists to access broader audiences without the traditional reliance on record labels or physical distribution channels. However, this transformative model has ignited debates within the industry. While some artists thrive in this access-based ecosystem, concerns loom large over the platforms' intermediary roles and the meagre royalties disbursed to artists, underscoring an urgent call for equitable compensation. This study takes a qualitative approach, utilising in-depth interviews and secondary data analysis, to delve into the impact of free music streaming and downloading platforms on independent artists in Kenya. It unravels a complex tapestry of both positive and negative impacts on these artists. The discussion concludes by shedding light on the opportunities that have arisen for artists due to the prevalence of free music streaming services. Ultimately, this study puts forth recommendations geared toward fostering a sustainable and fair music industry. It seeks to deepen our comprehension of the evolving dynamics within the Kenyan music industry, inform policies and strategies tailored to the digital age, and attempt to address the persistent concerns surrounding artist compensation and the role of technology in the field.
Copyright (c) 2023 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Traditions and innovations in the liturgical music of the Cherubim and Seraphim Movement Church (Ayo ni o) Lagos state
The liturgy of the Cherubim and Seraphim Movement Church (Ayo ni o) Lagos State, Nigeria, is characterised by various worship activities such as prayer, reading of the bible, ringing of the bell, and singing, to mention few, and scholars have noted music to constitute a greater part of it. While some aspects of the church’s worship rites are considered rigid and fixed, modernisation and technology continue to redefine some of its religious practices, especially liturgical music. Much of the studies on the church focused on issues surrounding traditions, the liturgy, and musical practices. However, little is known about the recent changes and continuities that have attended the church's liturgy. This study seeks to deconstruct the existing tradition in the liturgical music of the C&S movement against the backdrop of newly introduced innovations. It further investigates agents of innovation and the attendant reactions of the members to the change. The theory that informs this study is transformation leadership. The researcher used incidental sampling to interview key church members in Lagos districts. In addition, participant observation was also employed. Data were subjected to content analysis. The study argues that despite newly introduced innovations, some of the old traditions in the liturgical music of the church are still practised and maintained.
Transcending Space, Time and Culture through Intercultural Musical Dialogue
In recent years, the creative industry in Kenya has seen a rise in consumption of art from other countries. This is due to the influence of global and modern trends on local media and the Kenyan audience. Consequently, various stakeholders in the artistic domain have taken personal initiatives to advocate for the production, performance and airing of local art to promote Kenyan content. They strive to appeal to the public’s taste, create demand for Kenyan art, and influence the media as well as government broadcasting policies. Musicians in Nairobi (Kenya’s capital city) for instance, elevate Kenyan music by collaborating with local and foreign bars, restaurants, government and non-governmental organisations which sponsor musical events and provide platforms for them to exhibit their music, and that of other artists. They also redefine the country’s urban sound by localising genres from other countries, incorporating indigenous styles from Kenyan ethnic groups, and reworking Kenyan oldies. By doing that, they interact with individuals from different generations, cultures, and geographical spaces, traversing musical and cultural boundaries, and acquiring new audiences. Using in-depth interviews, I explore how these musicians and other stakeholders in Nairobi’s music scene, manage to promote and create demand for Kenyan styles both locally and internationally. Additionally, observing performances, and interacting with some of the audience members aid in interrogating urban genres that transcend time and space, linking and appealing to various cultures while gaining new audiences.
A survey on the uptake of software and hardware resources for music production in Zimbabwean contemporary music
The study surveyed the uptake of software and hardware for music production. The research examined the challenges that Zimbabwean music producers face in accessing software and hardware associated with production. Through qualitative research, 26 participants including musicians and music producers, were purposively sampled from Harare the capital city of Zimbabwe and Midlands State University in Gweru. The researchers secured participants’ informed consent and assurance of their freedom to withdraw from the study any time. Data were gathered through interviews online video and voice calls coupled with detailed questionnaires with open ended questions. Data were captured using voice recorders and note taking. The researchers analysed the data through a thematic approach basing on the Actor-Network Theory. The researchers focused on instruments and music productiontools associated with its production. Different software such as Cubase, Fruity Loops, Logic Pro X and Pro Tools 12 and hardware such as small audio interfares, keyrigs, and live musical instruments Mbira, Marimba, guitars, keyboards, live drums,ngoma, congas were in use in music production. However, some of the software were cracked versions allegedly due to high procurement cost. Accessing free resources on the internet was a challenge due to poor internet connectivity and high costs of data. There were limited opportunities for formal training in music production. Notwithstanding the challenges, music productions were undertaken with both analogue and digital resources. Aspirant music producers need to be proactive and explore the internet’s free resources to gain knowledge about music production. Future research should cover a wider geographic to gather comprehensive data on the state of music production in Zimbabwe.
Decolonizing the African musical language and Identity through Onyeji’s ”˜Research Approach to music composition’ in Nigeria
Ongoing research in the arts, humanities and social sciences has largely explored different subjects on decolonising African socio-cultural perspectives, including music composition and performances. Art music composers in Nigeria and diaspora beyond creative expression have adopted their native languages as a viable tool for decolonising their continent. More recently, works and arguments of music scholars like Meki Nzewi, Dan Agu, Bode Omojola, Olusoji Stephen, and Christian Onyeji, among so many, have emphasised the deliberate creative engagement of indigenous languages and musical idioms as a tool for recovering Nigerian indigenous identity and sustainability of their indigenous musical cultures. Building on Hofstede’s theory on cross-cultural interactions and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural theory in addressing the issue of decolonising Africa through music and language, the study employed qualitative and ethnographic research methods to investigate the significance of Onyeji’s research compositional approach in sustaining African musical culture and identity. The study findings based on the analysis of the music piece “Abigbo for Modern Orchestra” and its creative milieu within the context of decolonisation conclude that art music composition based on thorough cultural investigations of a particular musical style or ensemble for heritage preservation is an effective medium of decolonising African music and language.
Exploring the Big Four production styles and the recording industry in Zimbabwe
This study identifies the key characteristics of the four music production styles mentioned by Owsinski (2014). The production styles can be traced back to four main origins, being London, Chicago, Nashville and New York. The study used a historical research paradigm, to trace the music production styles that gave birth to the Zimbabwe recording industry. The study endeavoured in the first place to trace the arrival of recording studios in Africa and, in particular, Zimbabwe. This effort assisted the researchers with important insights into the predominant production style found in Zimbabwean music. The pertinent music productions encompass both the analogue and digital eras. The pioneers of these styles were unveiled through various literature, and effects found in mixing and their main purposes were also documented for this study. It was noted that Gallo Records from London played an immense role in shaping and moulding Zimbabwe's music production, placing the roots of music production in line with the key tenets of the London model. Regardless of the dominance of the London music production style, there are traces of the Chicago, Nashville and New York models. It can be concluded that the Zimbabwe music production model borrowed from various production styles, especially as the dominance of digital technology is ever-increasing globally and locally. Further studies will benefit the academia if similar studies are engaged to examine other countries in Africa and other developing nations globally to see how London, Chicago, Nashville and New York impacted the recording industries thereof.
The ritualistic nuances of Efumbo: The Mystical Bukusu Drum
Communities in Western Kenya have over time used drums and drumming for education, emotional expression, aesthetics, communication, symbolic validation, condemnation, information, therapeutic, and religious rituals, contributing to the continuity and stability of culture. However, critical aspects of traditions and rituals around the drums are likely to be lost due to a lack of sufficient documentation and the dwindling social institutions for which they were initially known (such as traditional circumcision ceremonies). This article investigated the ritualistic nuances associated with Efumbo ”˜the mystical Bukusu drum’. The article argues that there is a rich cultural expression of the rituals of the Bukusu manifested through the drum tradition. As such, Efumbo in the Bukusu community is played in various functions such as circumcision, weddings, funerals, invoking spirits of barrenness, and prayer sessions when a spirit possesses one. The documentation of Efumbo and the traditions associated with it will improve and preserve the creative and cultural works of the drummers, drum makers, and allied.
Music as a medium for communication, education and information dissemination: enhancing resilience among urban dwellers in Zimbabwe
The major focus of the study was to use music to communicate, educate and disseminate information that helps curb suicidal and drug abuse cases among Zimbabwean communities. Zimbabwe as a country is facing severe economic challenges, which in turn has brought about much suffering to the people. As a result, some of them end up engaging in drugs or committing suicide in response to the challenges bewildering the country. This study was qualitative, superimposed on action research and a survey. Roadshows targeting some members of the Gweru communities were organised. The songs performed at the road shows carried lyrics meant to disseminate information about hope, inspiration, and patience. Purposively sampled respondents were drawn from a population of three communities in Gweru who attended the road shows that were held in their respective constituencies. The informants were picked up on the researchers’ knowledge of their capacity to inform the study. Open-ended interviews were conducted after the shows were held, to appreciate how effective the songs were in disseminating intended messages. The findings of this study revealed that the songs that were performed at roadshows helped in giving the people hope, encouragement, and perseverance in the wake of economic challenges as well as cultivating the spirit of hard work and resilience among them. It can therefore be recommended that music therapy centres, road shows and other such performances be organised in various communities to help counsel people reeling from depression and other related illnesses.
Acceptance of contemporary songs in the Methodist Church in Zimbabwe liturgy: Ruwa section, Goromonzi
The study examined the use of songs from outside the worship liturgy of the Methodist Church in Zimbabwe (MCZ) in the Ruwa Section, Goromonzi Circuit. The circuit had six congregations with mixed views on the above-referred songs. A debate on the choice of worship songs was identified as a problem that needed research. The researchers looked at the spirituality of songs and their bearing on the MCZ music tradition. The researchers adopted a qualitative research paradigm. Data was collected through interviews, focus group discussions, a self-administered questionnaire and participant observation over four months. A sample of 120 informants was drawn from the youth, choristers, the elderly, and church leaders using stratified random and simple random sampling techniques. Findings show that not all songs drew congregants into spirituality. Regardless of spirituality in Christian contemporary worship songs, some MCZ members did not embrace the songs as they were from outside their canon. The research observed that some youths and middle aged MCZ members embraced worship songs that reflected their cultural musical styles. However, some of the songs regardless of the Christian text, lacked spirituality. The researchers recommend that the MCZ consider canonising some of the contemporary worship songs based on spirituality.
The Ritual Music, Culture and Nature of the Chiswa harvesting among Babukusu of Western Kenya
Termite harvesting remains an important ritual and cultural activity in the Bukusu community of Western Kenya. Termites are a delicacy that people enjoy. Harvesting the termites takes different approaches as will be discussed in this article. The paper will, however, focus on one mode that makes use of a musical stimulus to attract the termites into a trap. In this article, I will venture into showing how this ritual of termite harvesting is an important part of the intangible cultural heritage of Babukusu. Further, I will seek to demonstrate how music can be central to interspecies communication. It is also envisaged that this article will contribute to the literature concerning ecomusicology, a new field of study that is in the process of developing definitions and terminology as well as conceptual understanding. This article drew data from field research I carried out in Bungoma County in 2017. Using ethnographic approaches, I interviewed participants during the harvesting rituals. Further data was gathered through participant observation. It is important to note that I come from this community and have over time participated in the ritual. Some of the information in this document is based on my position as an insider who has participated in this ritual over the years.
Composition of Anthems: Lessons from Kabarak University Anthem Creation and Experience
Anthems play a major role in upholding the motto, mission, and vision of institutions, organisations, and countries all over the world pride in their national anthems. Principles and conscious or unconscious conventions are observed in the creation and interpretation processes of the performance of anthems across many cultures. Therefore, with time, anthems have become not just national emblems but rather very special patriotic music compositions that have demanded deep thought processes, reflection and careful consideration of specific procedures and techniques in composing them. This study set out to illuminate historical contexts, philosophies and ideologies that informed the creation of the Kabarak University (KABU) anthem; examine the role played by key stakeholders and players; articulate institutional and academic dynamics, shared experiences, team spirit, negotiations and consensus that dictated and guided the creative process of KABU-anthem project. The authors analyse compositional techniques and textual organisation to establish various musical intersections crucial in shaping the nature, form, style, and textual themes of KABU-anthem. The article discusses the processes of approvals, rehearsals, awareness, commissioning and premiere performances of the KABU anthem; and, finally assesses the level of perception and reception of the KABU anthem by the community of KABU. Besides drawing on crucial information from authors' experiences as composers and musical arts education practitioners, the discussions in the paper were guided by thoughts from related literature and Google survey structured interviews. The paper aims to provoke further discourse and interest in the music composition and songwriting creative processes.
The implementation of intellectual property rights to enhance music business in Zimbabwe: Challenges and prospects
In the Zimbabwe music industry, the issue of copyright law implementation has been problematic with intellectual property rights violations plaguing the society and resulting in musicians failing to fully benefit financially from their creations. This study is an attempt to find out how musicians are benefiting from their intellectual property that is being used by various businesses including broadcasters. We argue that the problem of piracy has become an Achilles tendon for many artists despite the presence of a copyright law enforcement regime in the country. This article examines the nature and consequences of the copyright law in the country, as well as the way in which ZIMURA is implementing it to advance the cause of popular musicians. The article illustrates how the challenges faced by ZIMURA serve to impoverish Zimbabwean musicians in unheralded ways that leave a good number of artists poor and famous. This qualitative study uses participant observation, document analysis and key informant interviews with purposively selected informants to elucidate the implementation of intellectual property rights in Zimbabwe’s music industry. The analysis is informed by the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach as well as Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital. The findings show that in Zimbabwe music is taken as free property by most users who either sell pirated copies or access them for personal use without paying anything. From the study, it is clear that musicians are not getting a fair share of their intellectual property in the form of royalties. It is also notable that music that is appreciated more gets paid more royalties than music which is not popular with broadcasters and audiences.
The musical development of visually impaired learners: A case study of a special needs secondary school
Exceptional musicality in visually impaired musicians raises the challenging question on the existence of a link between blindness and musicality. This qualitative ethnographic case study informed by Ockelford’s theory on blind musicians and Gardner’s multiple intelligence model undertaken at a special needs secondary school, explored the musical development of visually impaired learners. Data collection was made through observations, semi-structured interviews and document analysis. Thirty-five [35] visually impaired learners, fourteen [14] boys and twenty-one [21] girls were purposefully sampled for exceptional musicality in choir, guitar, keyboard, marimba ensemble and solo mbira. Sixteen [16] low vision, eight [8] legally blind, and eleven [11] totally blind informants were purposefully sampled for their virtuoso performance on select African and Western instruments. Evidence revealed that, audiation, kinesthetic and tactile knowledge contribute significantly to learner development of music skills. An acute sense of hearing is an important contrivance for visually impaired learners to construct the meanings of the world around them. An individual who are visually impaired or suffers loss of vision at an early age, re-wire to other senses particularly that of hearing to establish the identity of individuals and objects. A low vision hereditary trait in some participants was established. However, the study focus was not on the causes of blindness. Formal education and the home environment are significant factors in the creation of favorable conditions for the development of music skills in learners with visual impairment. Further research needs to examine the integration of emerging technologies in the quest for a better understanding of the development of music knowledge by visually impaired individuals Collaboration with neuroscience with its interest in music processing by the brain and may specifically focus on visually impaired individual’s musicality.
The Musical Art Creativity and Contributions of Isaac Idamoyibo to Okpe Discourse
The rise in the pursuit of knowledge and acquisition of training in Western art music has produced many competent Nigerian art musicians. The result of this training is seen in the steady efforts made by Nigerian art musicians, whose scholarly works are channelled into the global preservation and propagation of Nigerian indigenous music. Investigating indigenous theory and practices of diverse music and philosophy encompasses different genres in Nigeria’s milieu. The significant contributions of the Late Isaac Idamoyibo, like some other notable ethnomusicology composers, in discussing Okpe’s intangible musical heritage via his indigenous hymn compositions cannot be excluded from this scholarly achievement. This study examined some selected indigenous hymns, namely, “Sun Me,” “Odibo Omerhen“, Edon Aghogho”, and “Omo Imeri”, composed in Okpe socio-value imperceptible heritage by Isaac Idamoyibo. Findings revealed that the artistry continuum of Idamoyibo in composition has added to the scripted educational materials in Nigeria’s educational setting. The highlight of his remarkable scholarly studies on different aspects of the Okpe culture and its musical system remains one of the historical annals of the 21st century.
Copyright (c) 2022 David Bolaji https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Soldier, The Chapel, The Wedding and the Composer: Assessing the Works of Dufay and Saint Maurice of Savoy in the 15th Century
This article explores two often poorly connected fields in a quite touchy symbolic conception. On one side is the complex ramification of the County of Savoy and its family therein at a period when Savoy become a Duchy under the protection of the German Holy Empire with the patronage of Saint Maurice, while on the other side is the complex and prolific secular compositions of Guillaume Dufay and its subtle style of performance. In many cases, little is known by Historians about medieval music. Therefore, Musicologists interested in metrics and comparison between manuscripts could easily obliterate the subtle diplomacy of the patrons of this period. To complicate even more, Savoy historians are in France and Italy (with most documents in Latin and French), and Dufay specialists are mainly in England and the United States. This essay also evocates a medieval Black saint, Maurice, considered a positive symbol, an idea not so evident in Savoy nowadays but probably also shortly after in the Protestant Alps, a period when visual representation could be easily destroyed. Hence this study enquires into this controversial subject and finds interesting new materials connected with music. This could be anecdotal if these pieces were not already so well-known and influential in the History of music.
Copyright (c) 2022 Thomas Sylvand https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Negotiating Societal Crises through Eschatological Narratives in Yoruba gospel music: Notes from Evangelist J. A. Adelakun’s “Amona tete maa bo”
Scholars have discussed how gospel music offers a framework for responding to the religious, social, and economic experiences of people in society. Beyond performing religious and evangelistic purposes, how gospel music illuminates societal crises–politics and ecology–is yet to be known. This study examines the role of gospel music as a tool to facilitate religious experience while articulating social concerns. Specifically, it discusses the approaches employed by Yoruba gospel musicians in evoking spirituality in their discourse on societal problems. Reference is made to the musical performance of a popular Yoruba gospel music album titled “Amona Tete Maa bo” by Evangelist J.A. Adelakun which was accessed on YouTube. Further information is gathered from other internet sites including blogs, social media as well as periodicals which provided the secondary sources of data for the study. Through textual and musical analyses of the first and longest track in the album, and relying on critical discourses from musicology, religion, and cultural studies, this paper demonstrates how gospel musicians deploy musical and theological approaches to reference and negotiate their social, political and environmental ”˜salvation’ through eschatological narrative. The article explains the extent to which these approaches in gospel music and by extension Yoruba gospel musicians are evocative of the general spiritual dimension to almost every social, political and ecological crisis in Africa.
Copyright (c) 2022 Toyin Samuel Ajose https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
THE GLOBALISATION OF AFRICAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: A CASE OF THE ADEUDEU OF TESO COMMUNITY IN KENYA
There are various insights into the discourse of musical culture from a global context. Some of these insights include the impact of globalisation on the music industry and African music-making at large. African musical instruments continue to be cultural artifacts and productions of immaterial culture and music. African instruments have not remained static but have responded to intercultural reciprocity. This study stems from an ambit that has discussed African traditional musical instruments such as the Mbira, Kora, Djembe, and Endara of West and South Africa but needs to pay more attention to those from East Africa and Kenya in particular. This paper is a case study of the Adeudeu (a chordophone), a principal instrument of the Teso community in Western Kenya and a symbol of their cultural identity. The purpose is to highlight the extent to which traditional musical performances have been appropriated and retained in the contemporary setting creating their popular music. The study engaged eight musical groups drawn from each of Teso district’s divisions, selected through purposive and snowball sampling. Qualitative data analysis was used. The paper analyses music performed on the traditional Adeudeu vis a vis that performed on the contemporary Adeudeu to elucidate similarities and differences in music making. The argument is that a change in one element of the musical ensemble has ramifications on the music producing a different ”˜musical colour’. The paper culminates in highlighting changes that have taken place on the instrument and the overall musical rendition of the Teso.
Copyright (c) 2022 Nancy A. Masasabi, Fred W. Kususienya https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
EFFICACY OF A MUSIC-BASED INTERVENTION ON ENHANCEMENT OF TREATMENT MOTIVATION AMONG CLIENTS WITH SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS IN RESIDENTIAL TREATMENT IN KENYA
Abstract Although evidence suggests music-based interventions (MBI) may help enhance treatment motivation, their efficacy was generally untested among the Kenyan population. This motivated the current study to test the efficacy of an MBI on treatment motivation of clients with substance use disorder (SUD) in a selected treatment center. Subjects were 40 clients in a residential treatment facility with two branches. A quasi-experiment, nonequivalent control group pre-test post-test design was used. The treatment group, with 20 clients in branch A, received MBI in addition to treatment as usual (TAU) while the control, comprising 20 clients in branch B, only received the TAU in the same period. A TM test using the TCU/SRF Treatment Motivation scale was administered to both groups before and after the four weeks of MBI on the treatment group. Findings showed that the treatment group had significantly higher levels of treatment motivation at post-test compared to the control group after controlling for various covariates, suggesting that MBI may have contributed to the increased TM in the treatment group. This implies that MBI may be a promising intervention in enhancing treatment motivation among clients with SUD in treatment settings in Kenya.
Copyright (c) 2022 Antony Chege, Beatrice Kathungu, Muchiri Karega https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
MELODIC AND TEXTUAL RESOURCE MATERIALS IN A. T. ’S ”Ÿ ________________________
This paper examines the compositional resource materials of Yorà¹bà¡ native airs (YNAs) composed by Rev. A. T. là¡ Olàºdé in his o mn ook k n v l Yorà¹bà¡ native air composers have contributed greatly to the development of the YNAs in Christian liturgy, which was as a result of the need for hymns that best represent the Yorà¹bà¡ identity since there was a clash between the speech tone of the Yorà¹bà¡ texts and the European hymn melodies of the translated European hymns. This paper established four compositional resource materials used in k n the Yorà¹bà¡ hymn book. Rev. là¡ Olàºdé adapted Yorà¹bà¡ folktales and ceremonial melodies to which he added newly composed text in idiomatic Yorà¹bà¡ language reflecting Christian doctrine. In addition, he adapted and made parody of Yorà¹bà¡ drum language in form of speech surrogacy. He also composed melodies in Yorà¹bà¡ idioms to the first verse of translated European hymns and in addition, he composed entirely original hymns in both text and tune.
Copyright (c) 2021 African Musicology Online
ASSESSMENT OF CONTEMPORARY MUSIC ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS IN ADEYEMI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ONDO
Most students in tertiary institutions nowadays have remarkable admittance to contemporary music and use them in both expected and unexpected ways. They spend hours daily listening, singing and dancing to various genre of contemporary music. This paper set out to examine the effects of contemporary music on the academic achievement of the tertiary institution students with focus on Adeyemi College of Education in Ondo State, Nigeria. A descriptive survey design was employed and the targeted populations for the study comprised both students and lecturers in the institution. The instrument for data collection was a structured and well-designed questionnaire guide. Five hundred and forty (540) students were randomly selected from various departments as well as One hundred (100) lecturers, making a total number of six hundred and forty (640) respondents. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics in form of frequencies and simple percentage. The findings divulge that contemporary music is causing students to lose focus on their academic tasks, promotes a high sense of immorality through use of highly offensive language (lyrics) and dance patterns. This has resulted in penetrability of moral impiety, licentious dressing and sexual perversion among students. This study recommends that students should be encouraged to be listening to music that will convey positive character-building messages for edification and desist from music that egg on and motivate unethical acts.
INTERCULTURAL EXPRESSIONS IN THE YORà™Bà NATIVE AIR TRADITION OF REV. CANON J. J. RANSOME-KàšTàŒ
The evolution of indigenous Yorà¹bà¡ Church music can be traced to the activism of some pioneer Church men who were passionate about generating appropriate idioms and medium for musical expression. Rev. Canon Josiah Jesse Ransome-Kàºtà¬ can be regarded as a progenitor of the Yorà¹bà¡ native air tradition in Christian liturgy. This paper employed the theory of interculturalism in identifying the elements of intercultural expressions in his musical output that formed the appendix of the Yorà¹bà¡ Hymn book Iwe Orin Mimo fun Ijo Enia Olorun ni ile Yorà¹bà¡. His upbringing showcases simultaneous exposure to the worlds of Yorà¹bà¡ traditional and European Church music. Intercultural expressions identified in the song collection of Canon Kàºtà¬ includes documentation, set keys, instrumentation and rhythm, harmonic progression, structural form, as well as open air music performance.
A STUDY ON THE EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE OF POPULAR MUSIC BANDS IN KENYA: THE CASE OF MASENO UNIVERSITY BAND
Majority of the music audience both within and without the academic circles in Kenya have perceived the function of popular music bands to be entertainment. This paper however takes a departure from this notion and explores other functions that the bands serve, beyond entertainment. Therefore, the study explored and brought to the fore the educational function that such bands also give to the society. With a focus on Maseno University Music band, the authors objectively sought to establish the teaching and training process, the performance styles, genres employed in music band instruction, the leadership organization and management of the band. Data collection methods and tools included interviews, participant and non-participant observation and tape recorder. The study population which comprised band practitioners, trainers and instructors was obtained through purposive and snowballing technique. Qualitative data obtained was organized in topics of discussion and presented in prose. It is hoped that the findings of this study shall augment the pool of existing knowledge of popular music locally and internationally.
EFFECTS OF CAPITALISM AND MASS CULTURE ON THE DIMINUTION OF AFRICAN MUSIC PRACTICE AMONG THE KENYAN YOUTH
After independence, African countries, Kenya included, have since adopted a capitalistic lifestyle which s gradually eroding the African identity of communalism. Though capitalism has some considerable positives, its adoption as a sole replacement of the otherwise pre-colonial communal culture in Africa has brought along a mass culture whose negative effects continue to disintegrate and threaten cohesiveness and unity, the hallmarks of African society. The education system continues to play a big role in the promotion of capitalistic ideals while discreetly disavowing most African cultural practices concomitant with African music practice. This paper seeks to analyze the negative effects of capitalism and mass culture on the African youths. It also highlights the attributes of African music practice and the place of education in promoting and restoring abandoned cultural value systems. The method that has been adopted for this study is a mixed method approach. This study espouses that African music practice can be used as a tool for promoting and restoring cultural values through the school and the society. It is a call for introspection by elite Africans regarding their identity and value systems.
THE IMZAD AND TUAREG MUSIC: GENDER DEBATES VERSUS BELIEFS, VALUES AND PROMOTIONS
This paper discusses the Tuareg people of the Central Sahara, outlining salient issues relating to the imzad (a Targai musical instrument) and gender. It examines the various ways in which gender and gendered meanings are derived in musical instruments. Drawing upon Veronica Doubleday’s theory on gendered meanings constructed within relationships between humans and musical instruments, the paper examines the dual instrumental monopolies of the Targai (Tuareg women musicians) and the Targui (Tuareg men musicians) living in the region of Mali, Niger and Algeria. It argues that gendered monopolies and dominance in music and musical instruments is not a necessary debate; beliefs, value systems and hereditary among other factors, may necessitate the observed male-female monopolies in music performances (voice or instrument). Our cultural beliefs, values and safeguarding practices are of more importance when rightly channelled by our indigenous music, they can attract investors and promotions on the international scale. The paper contributes to the vast ethnomusicological literature on music and gender.
ADVOCACY FOR CONTEXTUALIZATION OF CHRISTIAN WORSHIP IN AFRICA
Though Christianity is the biggest religion in Africa (Johnson, 2018) its liturgy remains predominantly Western. Religion being a link between a community and its deity must be authentic and contextualized for it to have meaning. The introduction of Christianity and the damnation of the African culture by early missionaries, has contributed to the current worship style that can only truly be defined as foreign. Consequently, there has been retrogression over time of positive traditional worship practices that otherwise contribute to an authentic African liturgy. This paper seeks to demystify the notion that the African culture and its worship is entirely based on pagan practices and therefore void of emulative practices that can be used to enhance and contextualize worship. It seeks to illuminate the role that music plays in liturgy and worship within the African context. The method adopted for this study is qualitative and comparative approach. This study elucidates the fact that Africans are religious and contextualization of worship enhances and authenticates worship. It is a call on elite African musicians to educate church leaders and congregants on the need for contextualized worship based on idioms inherent within the African culture and worship. Recommendations on the incubation of contextualized African worship models; for both religious leaders and church musicians has therefore been made an integral part of this study.
ENHANCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRACTICAL MUSICIANSHIP AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN BUNGOMA COUNTY: AN ASSESSMENT OF THE STUDENTS’ LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Many scholars of music such as Kodaly, Dalcroze and Campbell have argued for the need of developing practical musicianship among learners in Music Education. One of the purposes of Music Education is the creation of an environment in which the human potential is nurtured to bring forth an understanding of a variety of musical experiences. Music is a phenomenon that is experienced by nurturing the intrinsic interest and motivation of a leaner. This paper is therefore based on a study that was conducted to examine the development of practical musicianship among students of music in secondary schools. The main objective of the paper is to determine the various learning activities and strategies that students engage in to enhance practical musicianship. Adopting a descriptive survey design, secondary schools in Bungoma County that offer music as a subject formed the area of study. The respondents included 19 teachers and 177 students of music from 15 purposively sampled secondary schools. Data was collected using personal interviews, observation schedule, document analysis and a questionnaire. The collected data was then analyzed descriptively, and its findings presented in bar charts and tables. The study established that students engaged in dancing, singing and playing musical instruments as a way of enhancing their practical musicianship skills. Based on these findings, the study recommends that the balance between practical and theoretical components of the curriculum should be addressed. Provision of opportunities for students to talk about their musical interests, likes and dislikes on a regular basis in order to better facilitate meaningful musical instruction should be encouraged. Stronger marketing of musical activities might ensure that learners are fully aware of the music opportunities in the schools. Provision of new activities, such as jazz and popular bands, jazz choirs, folk groups and other kinds of ensembles might generate wider enthusiasm from the learners alongside traditional orchestra and choir groups.
LEARNERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS PRACTICAL MUSICIANSHIP IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN BUNGOMA COUNTY
Researchers across the globe have found huge support for music as a necessary component of an adolescent’s life. Since music seems to be such an important part of young people’s identity and it influences many aspects of their behaviour, the topic of formal music education remains critical and open to exploration and discussion. The discrepancy between ”˜music at school’ and ”˜music out of school’ is therefore often huge for students. The aim of this paper is to investigate the attitudes of learners in secondary schools towards practical musicianship. Adopting the use of descriptive survey design, the study targeted 19 teachers and 177 students of music from 15 purposively sampled secondary schools. Data was collected using personal interviews, observation schedule, document analysis and a questionnaire. The collected data was then analyzed descriptively based on emerging themes and quotas. The study established that majority of the students of music had a positive attitude towards practical musicianship. As a result, teachers are only required to encourage and motivate them towards attaining their desired career goals in musicianship. However, some students had also developed negative attitude about school music because of lack of instrumental and vocal provisions. The study recommends inclusion of music technology and popular music within the music curriculum to stimulate wider interest in the subject. More so, provision of opportunities for students to talk about their musical interests, likes and dislikes on a regular basis in order to better facilitate meaningful musical instruction should be encouraged.
INTERPRETATION OF MEANINGS EMBEDDED IN NON-DISCURSIVE SYMBOLIC COMMUNICATION OF KAMABEKA CULTURAL DANCE OF BABUKUSU COMMUNITY OF BUNGOMA COUNTY, KENYA
In most cultures of the world, indigenous cultural dances do communicate non-discursively. The meanings thereof are usually culture bound hence need an individual with the cultural background knowledge of the dance in question to be able to understand the communication behind the dance. With a focus on kamabeka dance, the main objective of this study was to interpret the meanings embedded in the non-discursive communication of kamabeka cultural dance of Babukusu community of Bungoma County, Kenya. This is a step towards dissemination of African knowledge to the global village since currently is saturated with western knowledge. The study was guided by the theory of semiotics and communication by Wendy Leeds-Hurwitz (1993). The target population comprised 25 kamabeka dance troupes and 25 kamabeka dance troupe leaders who were purposively selected pursuant to the data obtained from the register in the ministry of culture and sports in Bungoma County. However only 8 out of 25 dance troupes which accounts for 30% were selected for logistical convenience. Only 11 out of 25 leaders were sampled owing to a point of saturation which was reached by the 11th respondent. This accounted for 44% of the total population. Data collection methods comprised interviews, participant and non-participant observation. Data collection instruments and tools comprised interview schedules for dance troupe leaders and observation schedules for dance live performances, field notebook and a tape/video recorder and still photographs. Recorded videos of kamabeka dances were also obtained for analysis. Qualitative data obtained was organized in topics of discussions analyzed descriptively and presented in prose and photographs. It is hoped that the findings of this study shall, provide resource material for reference and beef up the existing pool of knowledge as well as stimulate further research in the area of ethnomusicology and related disciplines.
THE CREATIVE APPROACH TOWARDS AFRICAN IDENTITY: A SCHOLASTIC DISCOURSE IN HONOR OF AKIN EUBA
This paper focuses on the works of ethnomusicologist and composer, Akin Euba. It examines how Euba projects African identity through his concept of African pianism. The paper explains that the concept provides the background for understanding how the European piano could be used to imitate traditional African musical principles and instruments in works that synthesize African and European elements. The research relies on published literature, the views of Euba, as well as analysis of selected works, mainly, his 'Scenes for Traditional Life'. The study draws attention to the pioneering approach towards expressing African identity in the world of Art Music as well as how Akin Euba’s innovative concept has influenced the younger generation of composers.
DEVELOPING VOCAL MUSIC ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE: AN ANALYSIS IN SYNCHRONY TO THE CURRENT SYSTEMS IN KENYAN UNIVERSITIES
This paper sought to address the process through which universities in Kenya assess vocal music performance. The analysis was drawn against a checklist of 19 items that sought to develop a schedule that synchronizes with other schedules to help evaluate vocal music performance objectively. Purposive sampling was used to consider 12 universities offering music where 6 universities were randomly selected for participation in the study. Students of music were selected using stratified random sampling to acquire gender representation before simple random sampling technique was used to acquire the actual sample size n=30%. The study was guided by Constructive Alignment model(Biggs, 2003) as the theoretical underpinning. Data was collected using opinionnaires, questionnaires, focus group discussion, and observation schedule. Analyzed data was then presented in summarized tables and themes for content analysis. The students’ vocal evaluation and assessment schedules varied in the sampled universities as well as the capacity of music instructors to assess rhythmic accuracy, tempo, sight singing, tone, intonation, melodic accuracy, vocal technique, musicianship and synthesis analysis, historical and cultural context which formed the key elements of evaluation in the universities. The study concludes vocal music scores and evaluation schedules should be analyzed based on the developed schedule.
ASSESSMENT OF MUSIC TEACHERS ON THE POOR PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL (WASSCE) MUSIC PRACTICAL TEST
Music practical performance as examined by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) is one of the areas that provide a rich domain for study of both cognitive and motor skills of the students and provide employable skills for them. Unfortunately, for the past two years, chief examiners’ reports indicate poor performance among the candidates. This study is an assessment of the views of Music teachers on this menace and how it could be checked. Through descriptive survey, 40 music teachers were randomly selected from 40 Senior High Schools offering Music as elective subject for the West African Senior High School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) across Ghana. All the 40 teachers participated in the study. Hypotheses drawn indicated that there was no significance difference in the views of the Music teachers on all the research questions; however, Chi-square analysis revealed a constant variable with the need for practical music performance at the Senior High School. The paper then recommends that pragmatic measures are taken by not only the WAEC, but the headmasters and the government at large.
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THE INDIGENOUS MUSIC OF CHRIST APOSTOLIC CHURCH IN NIGERIA AND THE DIASPORAS: A PROOF OF CHRISTIAN TRANSFORMATIVE MUSICALITY
One of the distinguishing identities of any Church movement is music. Christ Apostolic Church (C.A.C) in Nigeria and the Diasporas at her inception came with her peculiar music firmly rooted in the Pentecostal theology of the church and in indigenous African musical culture. It became a great tool in the spirituality, evangelisation and proselytisation processes in the Church. Today, not only has C.A.C. influenced Nigerian Christian music greatly, but also dominated the gospel music, one of the most popular music genres in Nigeria. This paper, hinged on transformative and functionalism theories, aims at exhuming the philosophical theology, performance practices and the evolution of this Pentecostal brand of music, both at home and abroad. Employing theological, musicological and historical approaches, the paper as a sacred musicological study, discovers that C.A.C. music is highly functional with deep metaphysical connotations. From indigenous native airs, anthems, hymnody, art music and lyric-airs to gospel music, its style forms one of the manifestations of indigenous Pentecostalism; as it has been instrumental to the diverse operations, spread and acceptability of the Church. The Church extended overseas through migration, had her music ”˜carried’ along, though not without re-contextualised modifications. This paper concludes on the note that the Church, bearing in mind her leadership roles, should strive to uphold the legacies that earned her identity; especially her musical culture.
THE IMPACT OF DàšNDà™N DRUMMERS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRADITIONAL MUSIC IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA
The dàºndà¹n ensemble drummers are the custodians of Yoruba oral repertoire in South West Nigeria. Their skills are transmitted to the younger generation in simple and articulate style. It is important however, to distinguish between the dàºndà¹n ensemble groups at the king’s palace, city square, town hall and the dà¹ndàºn ensemble groups who perform on the streets and who normally impose themselves on guests at organised social events in Yoruba land. The court musicians and their counterparts usually,at the city square or town hall are gainfully employed by the king. This group of drummers are practitioners who perform mainly for royalties at the palace. The dà¹ndàºn street drummers, however, are prolific drummers who perform generally within the circles of the poor, roaming from street to street. They are generally perceived as beggars by those who do not understand the importance of the group in the society in which they reside. Their performance is sometimes extended to the social events in the midst of the rich without any invitation. The members of these groups are skilled instrumentalists according to the standard of measurement of artistic excellence in Yoruba land. Nevertheless, they lack the financial stability and social patronage to form a real dance band that promotes classical recordings of their works for a wider public consumption. Sociological and analytical methods of data collection used in the study reveal the societal intolerance of these groups of drummers and the drummers’ wise resistance of this attitude to their performances. The findings reveal that the ensemble drummers though do not get enough patronage, are very versatile performers and are promoters of their traditional musical culture. In conclusion, the status of the drummers does not influence the quality of their performances; rather, they are very happy people, thoroughly groomed as drummer ensemble whose impact deserves a better recognition and patronage.
REFLECTIONS ON INDIGENOUS AND MODERNIST PEDAGOGIES: THE CAUSATIVE FORCE OF REPETITION
Sound morality principles in the conduct of all issues of life ensure cohered and just society, and should therefore underpin every knowledge transmission, acquisition and practice. Pedagogy in indigenous African societies systematically groomed learners to esteem sublime intellection in knowledge transaction situations. Now, Hi-modernist humans assiduously gestate and germinate theories and knowledge constructs as well as processing, which mesmerise and blossom, while spawning injurious side-effects that de-human mentalities and life orientations. Ingenious brilliances disregard prestigious knowledge origins, or re-invent them in magnificent life and mind destructing fashions. Is our millennium still viable? This discourse queries whether ingenious or modernist pedagogy has geared into nefarious overdrive, losing sight of instilling humanly attributes in knowledge giving, acquiring, and practice. Indigenous pedagogy, now supplanted by its elegantly devastating modern offspring is uniquely ingenuous and gritty. It prioritised the nurturing of mass mind wellness, other-consciousness and sublime spirituality. This paper thus argues focusing on commonality as the foundation for probing super structural specifics. All humans are anatomically the same as per gender.
ANALYTICAL STUDY OF HARUNA ISHOLA’S COMPOSITIONAL TECHNIQUES IN ”˜INA RAN’
Haruna Ishola (1919-1983), an acknowledged singer/composer/performer/arranger/music business mogul is considered to have experimented and brought about revolution in the sound of apala music of the south west Nigeria. Many investigations have been conducted on Haruna Ishola’s works, however currently available resources about the stylistic elements in his compositions are minimal. Among Haruna Ishola’s compositions, we have selected and scored in staff notation representative ”˜songs’ in the track ”˜Ina Ran’ to highlight the structure, form and compositional techniques of the composer. In addition, the significance of Haruna Ishola’s works regarding how we would be able to understand better apala music. Therefore, this paper provides an improved understanding of the compositional style of Haruna Ishola’s songs, as well as their connection to other apala musicians.
ANALYSIS OF EDI EDISE: A COMPOSITION FOR AFRICAN ORCHESTRA
This work is an original composition for African orchestra. It is a composition for African musical instruments particularly found in Annang land of Akwa Ibom State and its analysis. In African orchestra, there are categories of instrumental combinations. This paper focuses on the combination of melodic and percussive instruments and with peculiar rhythms found in Annang land. It takes into account the rich rhythms of Annang people of Nigeria as would be used in this original instrumental composition to exhibit the rhythms of Africa. The method involved in this study includes library review, collection of discography, selection of some traditional instruments, watching and analysis of life performances of Annang music ensembles, and transcribing the various rhythms found therein. The study seeks to bring to the fore, through an instrumental composition, the rich rhythms of Annang people. Various traditional musical instruments are selected for this purpose to form an African orchestra. This will truly create an identity for Africa in general and Annang in particular thus will make known Annang rhythms to the world adding to the knowledge base for musicologists, rhythms of Annang people. This orchestral piece can be used for study and performance of African rhythms, for entertainment and at concert halls.
“NONSENSICAL SYLLABLE”? AN INQUIRY INTO ITS RATIONAL IN SUB-SAHARA AFRICAN
In an interview for post of lecturer, one of the interviewers (Lecturer of History and International Studies) said: “As an African child I enjoy and value folk songs especially those that feature what I later found that people in music call ”žnonsensical syllable”Ÿ. What is your view of this terminology?” He asked me. This paper is an elaborate researched version of the author”Ÿs response. It presents a new perspective towards rethinking and appropriating the erroneous term – “nonsensical syllable”. The arguments are validated using relevant folksongs of Aniocha people of Delta State, Nigeria to elucidate the discussion. The result of this research paper is significant for discussing and developing contemporary analysis, theory, terminology that portray the rational of African music.
The emergence of soul music in Nigeria represents the flowering of the transatlantic intercourse between Nigeria and the Americas in respect of music. Soul music was a socio-musical bombshell that impacted several aspects of Nigeria’s music and her social life and left enduring legacies thereby. Over the years, very few attempts have been made within Nigerian scholarly circles to explicate its impact and legacies, thus creating a yawning gap in these aspects of literature on popular music in Nigeria. It is this gap that this study seeks to fill. While the paper is largely descriptive, it is spiced with context analysis that derives from secondary and primary data. Primary data were obtained from interviews of musicians, participant and non-participant observations, listening to recordings while secondary data were gleaned from books, journals, seminar papers, newspapers and magazines. This paper reports that Soul introduced a new harmonic sequence, ensemble format, enthroned originality as a mark of musicianship, heightened dance as a factor that generates vogues, and introduced the practice of costuming in African popular music. Socially it established fandom as a critical element in vogue creation and patronage and popularized the American English accent in Nigeria. Through these effects, Soul established the African – American presence in Nigerian popular music and it became a niche that others have since built upon.
RETHINKING MUSIC, ITS POTENCY AND CHANGE
The conceptual framework of music may be anchored on the doctrine of ethos in which music is considered to possess mysterious powers capable of influencing and shaping the mental and physical wellbeing, morals and characters, as well as the feelings or passion of human beings. Different musical modes and associated lyrical contents, as well as rhythms, melody, harmony and, vocal and instrumental colours have the capacity to depress, stabilize or excite the listener. Consequently, the doctrine of ethos goes beyond thoughts, rationalization, beliefs and values of music to advance the conviction that music is a potent and commanding force capable of affecting characters and influencing thoughts, passion and conduct of people. Accordingly, expressions of musical thoughts in relation to community and events of life form the basis of human development and philosophy–viewpoints, thinking, communication, values, beliefs, ideas, attitudes and cultural expressions associated with ways of life. This article, “Rethinking Music, its potency and change”, examines the subjectmatter to identify the fundamental objectives of music, artistic and scientific developments right from the medieval period to the present era, methods of knowledge dissemination in Nigeria, changes which have taken place in the course of music evolution in sonic craftsmanship procedure and performance, new courses and perspectives in music curriculum at the tertiary level, global roles and impact of music in the socio-political, economic, religious and cultural lives of the people. Through empirical research on music and archival library information, this study makes a critical submission that the contributions of music to Nigeria national development are enormous.
YORUBA ART MUSIC: FRONTING THE PROGENITORS
The bedrock of music genres in Africa today remains the traditional music. The western formal music education embraced by African schools during and after the scramble for Africa by the northern hemisphere has given ”˜colorations’ to music genres both in the classroom and the larger society. Its legacies are found more in popular music. The most interesting thing is that essence of music remains undaunted in the faces of all new formalities in the educational system. Music still lives on stage and not on paper. This paper emerges as a derivative of the Yoruba Art Music (YAM) festival premiered in 2015 at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. With bibliographical evidences and substantial interaction with a non-Yoruba speaking music scholar this paper sufficed that the YAM festival is worth doing and is capable of solving other attendant issues in music scholarship.
COURT MUSIC AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: THE ALAAFIN OF OYO EXPERIENCE
Court music is played in the palace of kings (Oba, Obi, Sarkin, Etsu and Alaafin) in Nigeria. The music consists of both vocal and instrumental repertories. The music forms part of the integrative mechanisms of traditional political system due to its function. The most important thing about court music is the historical nature of the vocal and instrumental repertories. The Alafin of Oyo is the supreme head of all the kings and princes of the Yoruba nation, as he is the direct lineal descendant and successor of the reputed founder of the nation. This study, court music and national development in Nigeria examined the functional role of court music in Oyo community and in the palace of Alaafin Oyo, (Oyo is the name of a tradition popular town in Yoruba land in Nigeria). The study highlights the features of the Yoruba court music and discusses the impact of court music to the people of Oyo as a means of national development in the community. The study made used of oral tradition and written documents in its data collection approach. The outcome of the study reveals the impact and contribution of court music to the development and growth of Oyo community in ceremony communication, education, entertainment, history, politics, and ritual/religion and as a means of national development among Yoruba people of Nigeria. A conclusion is therefore dawn that court music is historical in nature in vocal and instrumental repertories. It communicates the beliefs, custom and values of the Yoruba in various ways. Court music records historical events and transmits social means in the traditional society.
COMPOSITION FRAMEWORK FOR CONTEMPORARY ARTISTS WHO USE TRADITIONAL TUNES
Music composition in Kenya has been undertaken alongside Western classical traditions comprising compositional techniques, styles, forms, and harmonies. This phenomenon also manifests itself in traditional music arrangements by various artists. Most of the composers are products of Western classical music tradition because this music education curriculum is the one in use in Kenyan institutions of higher learning.Traditional music in Kenya does not have an agreed method of representing musical notes on paper apart from the Western oriented methods of transcription. In this view, it is important for contemporary composers to discover elements of traditional music that would characterise the music of a community before writing it. The approach will assist in maintaining the musical whole of a society including functional roles thus assisting the audience to participate and identify themselves with the created music. This paper is based on research work that was carried out on art music created from traditional music of the Samia community of Busia County in Kenya. The paper discusses traditional music creations for societal use and suggests ways in which contemporary artists composing in traditional styles may work in the music idiom of a community. There is non-consideration of musical components that are important in the Samia traditional culture by contemporary artists; which include syllabic intonation, scales and speech rhythm. If not taken care of, the end result is a distorted melodic flow, with misplaced accents in the syllables of words of the Samia songs. A format that contemporary composers could use while working in traditional music style is proposed.
TOOLS FOR ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF VOCAL MUSIC AMONG SELECTED UNIVERSITIES IN KENYA
Vocal music performance occupies a dominant position in Kenya’s musical landscape yet academic study has raised numerous debates concerning its assessment and evaluation. It has been realized that performance in the arts presents an intricate problem and an absence of certain theoretical frameworks that stimulate vocal music discourses. Indeed in all levels of vocal music performance there is a need for instructors to provide a thorough documentation of student performance. Guided by Constructive Alignment Model (Biggs, 2003), this paper sought to analyse the tools and techniques used in assessing students’ feedback in vocal music performance by selected universities in Kenya. Twelve (12) universities that offer music were purposively sampled out of which random sampling technique was used to select six (6) universities. Students of music were selected using stratified sampling to acquire gender representation before simple random sampling technique was used to acquire the actual sample size n=30% of the population. This paper attempts to enlighten and improve the understanding of the tools used in assessment and evaluation of vocal music in Kenyan universities. Data was collected using opinionnaires for individual student responses, questionnaires for voice instructors and heads of the departments, focus group discussion for students, observation schedule by the authors and content analysis then presented in bar charts and frequency tables. Content analysed data was presented thematically. The study findings established that evaluation tools such as goal setting forms, templates for practice guidelines, lesson journals were inadequate. Therefore, the authors conclude that tools for assessment and evaluation of vocal music are of great significance to the growth of students’ vocals.
ANALYSIS OF BàˆMBà‰ MUSIC OF OBà€FàˆMI OWà“Dà‰ COMMUNITY, OGUN STATE SOUTH WEST NIGERIA
This paper examined the structural forms of Bèmbé music in Obà fèmi Owà³dé local government area of Abeokuta in à’gà¹n State. It also investigated the content and context of Bèmbé musical performance among the people with specific reference to rituals. The study equally examined the musical instruments used in Bèmbé musical performance and categorised them under the Sachs and Honbostel system of classification. The performances of the Arà­fà¡yà² family band were recorded and their songs randomly selected then subsequently analysed after the collection of relevant data from the field. Through detailed analysis, the study reveals salient elements of call and response with varied improvisations used in the music. It also established the multiple function of music performance in the context of social interaction and religious experience.
COMMUNICATIVE VIABILITY OF NYATITI MUSIC WITHIN SELECTED SUB-COUNTIES IN SIAYA
The study presented in this article was concerned with evaluating the current role played by Nyatiti Music in communication among the rural population of Siaya County. Nyatiti is among the most popular traditional musical instrument in Siaya. The lyrics that are accompanied by the instruments are designated after its name as ”žWende Nyatiti”Ÿ (Nyatiti songs). The Nyatiti songs are valued not only as forms of entertainment but also for their informative roles. The conceptualization of this paper arose due to the curiosity concerning the current status of Nyatiti as a viable medium of communication in Siaya County. About a decade ago, research was conducted that portrayed that a significant number of the population in the area had no access to the Print and Electronic Media form of communication. In order to gauge the communicative viability of Nyatiti songs, samples of the relevant songs were selected, translated and analyzed. Purposive and Snowball techniques of Sampling were employed to select the required number of study respondents. The communicative capacity of the Nyatiti songs was evaluated based on the results of the quasi-experimental process and the opinionnaire Likert scale result.
CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT CLASSICAL ORGAN MUSIC IN AFRICA
African related pieces in the organ Repertoire is a question not often challenged even if few scholarly studies exist; most of them concerning Afro-American composers. Practically, this means that in order to schedule a concert, “usual” organists will not give many names and these names won’t be the same in New-York, Lagos or Paris, where the “reputation” of Jean-Louis Florentz, for instance did not go as far as the landscapes he used to dream. Because of a specific project (Myrelingues, born in Lyon, but involving international partners); this question of Organ Repertoire became a pragmatic issue, including the opportunity of commissioning new works. This article gathers information from various sources related to the expanse of this field. In connection with this experience, Africa is considered a very large connecting topic including non-African composers. In addition, it also opens questions of inter-textuality, the importance of figures and consequences of dialog between musical works during the process of a kind of “birth” of such a Repertoire.
THETECHNOLOGY OF DỪNDỨN DRUMS IN YORUBA CULTURE
Musical instruments, no matter what culture on earth they are found in, often represent the most complex technologicaldevelopment of that particular culture. For instance, Dá»«ndá»©n drums are the most famous traditional drums in Yoruba culture. It is the principal and the most popular type of instrumental music in Yoruba culture. It has a key role in traditional events, celebrations and functions that are dear for the culture e.g.birth, naming, burial and funeral ceremonies. Dá»«ndá»©ndrum is used for various ceremonies because it is capable of producing music that is specific to an occasion. But what goes into its making that gives it such a potential? This paper thus attempts to discuss the origin, overall-shape, and construction, as regard the methods of attaching the skin to the body of frame of the drum, the tuning and the techniques of playing Dá»«ndá»©n drums in Yoruba culture.
MUSIC EDUCATION: A PANACEA FOR THE HANDICAPPED CHILDREN
Music is universally important to every human being. It relates to, and is part and parcel of children’s education where creative experiences and manipulative skills are gained and developed. Every child responds to the rhythm and the activities of man are often connected with music. Through musical activities, children acquire the basic skills, attitudes, values, norms, customs, and knowledge and tend to appreciate of their culture. Like every other human being, the handicapped children too, possess aptitudes, skills, concepts and knowledge that if appropriately utilized will help to solve many of the physical, social, educational, political and economic problems in the society. The handicapped children can learn how to sing, dance, play musical instruments and perform other musical skills in order to demonstrate their capabilities and relevance in the society. This paper therefore, examines the basic educational needs and musical activities of the handicapped children and sees how best music education can effectively be used to enhance livelihood of this vulnerable group.
MUSICAL ARCHIVING OF NIGERIAN ETHICS AND IDENTITY IN à€GàDàŒGBO MUSIC OF YORà™Bà, SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA
Although, discursive engagement on archival narratives has obviously attracted a myriad of scholarly attention in so many dimensions, the extent to which such deliberation is extended to the inherent capacity of Nigerian indigenous music in archival discourse is scanty. In the same vein, the concept of ethics and identity have received much attention, but such attention cannot be said to have engaged the mind of scholars from musicological point of view in a densely manner. Whereas, many Nigerian traditional music represents a collection of documents thereby serving as means of recording historical interest and cultural values of a dynamic society, this has not been properly documented. Perhaps, the paucity of literature in both areas stems from the general notion that archive is construed from the perspective of physical building where archival materials are kept. This paper therefore explores how traditional music is used as agency for archiving cultural values in Yorà¹bà¡ cosmology, using à gà­dà¬gbo music as a point of departure. Interviews were conducted to illicit information and musical excerpts were recorded from life performance of à gà­dà¬gbo exponents in Iwo (Osun state), Eruwa (Oyo state) and Abeokuta (Ogun state). Data were subjected to content analysis. It was revealed that à gà­dà¬gbo is a veritable means through which Nigerian ethics and identity of communal living, solidarity, contentment, patriotism, and hospitality are preserved for present and future contemplations.
MUSIC AS IMPLICIT CULTURAL POLICY INSTRUMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA: A CASE STUDY OF MUSICIANS SELLO GALANE, RUDZANI COLBERT MUKWEVHO AND KHAKHATHI TSHISIKULE
This article discusses music as cultural policy instrument in South Africa. It observes that numerous studies focus on cultural policy as initiated by governments in the western hemisphere and articulated through the written medium to its audience therein. While cultural policy in the country is also by and large government driven, it however also involves ordinary citizens through other transmissions like music. Through interviews and discography of songs by musicians Sello Galane, Rudzani Colbert Mukwevho and Khakhathi Tshisikule, the article demonstrates how cultural policy can be initiated by artists or how they can critic the already existing ones as sanctioned by respective current governing authorities.
THE EFFECT OF BACKGROUND MUSIC ON PERFORMANCE OF TAILORING WORKERS AT THE EXPORT PROCESSING ZONE IN KENYA
The general objective of this study was to determine the role of background music in employee performance of tailoring workers at the Export Processing Zone (EPZ) in Kenya. The study adopted the positivist approach and was conducted in a natural setting comprising garment tailoring factories. The study design adopted was field experiment. The study population was the 22 garment factories at the EPZ from which three were selected as the study sample using systematic sampling. Each of the 3 factories had 1500 tailors, thus 357 estimated sample size was used for the study from the 4500 tailors, with 119 tailors from each factory, selected through a systematic sampling procedure. In factory one, music was played throughout the day, while in the second factory music was played on and off and in the third factory music was not played at all. The study found that background music, had a positive and significant effect on employee performance of tailoring workers at the EPZ and contributed up to 20.6% of changes in employee performance. This was indicated by a coefficient of correlation of 0.454, coefficient of determination of 0.203, adjusted coefficient of determination of 0.203 and p-value<0.05.
RETHINKING THE DYNAMICS OF YORà™Bà Dà™NDàšN MUSIC RESOURCE MATERIALS IN THE CONTEXT OF CLAUDIUS OLAYEMI OLANIYAN’S SCHOLARSHIP
Beyond the rhetoric and an intentional tribute to a retired teacher (professor), senior colleague and mentor, Claudius Olayemi Olaniyan, this essay re-examines how Yorà¹bà¡ dà¹ndàºn drummers across different generations utilize music resource materials for composition and performance. The article is premised on Cultural Dynamism and relies on data generated from Yorà¹bà¡ dà¹ndàºn practitioners using the ethnographic techniques. Drawing on Olaniyan’s scholarly contributions, the ingenuity of dà¹ndàºn practitioners in adopting orà­kà¬ (praise chant/music), à²we (proverbs), à¬tà n à¬bà­láº¹/orin à bà¡là¡yé (folk history/folk song), à fojàºinàºwà² (imagination) and à¬ÅŸáº¹láº¹ ojàº eré (contextual occurrence) to craft their musical art and their contextual appropriateness was analyzed. Findings showed that there is a decline in performance dexterity, less opportunities for knowledge and skill acquisition on resource materials, as well as lower required discipline level and diligence for distinctiveness in modern dà¹ndàºn performance. The argument is that a gradual shift from the normative Yorà¹bà¡ music aesthetic assessment and the challenge of absolute meanings on and at different levels has implications for the promotion of dà¹ndàºn music making now and in the future.
DETERMINANTS OF MARGINALIZATION OF WOMEN IN THE KENYAN MUSIC EDUCATION SPACE
Women music educators in Kenya have, for long-time, experienced inequalities while navigating the music education space. As pointed out by various feminist scholars in the west and Africa, the oppression of women is experienced in multiple ways on the basis of patriarchy, race, class and sexuality. Thus, this paper explores the determinants of marginalization of women music educators in the Kenyan music education spaces. It focuses on the experiences of women music educators to bring forth discourses of gender, class, western ideologies and sexuality within the music education field. The paper perpetuates two assertions. One, that women music educators are marginalized within the music education field and two, that these inequalities are differently experienced amongst them. Through the Foucauldian concept of power, the paper demonstrates how a dominant identity produces discourses that define the women music educators as subordinate.
APPLICATION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN MUSIC AS A SUBJECT IN ONDO SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF ONDO STATE, NIGERIA
This study examines the application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in music as a subject in Ondo state secondary schools. This is essential because, ICT is a new trend and globally accepted as an effective means of imparting knowledge. Descriptive research design was employed and questionnaire in addition to library research were applied in data collection. The hypothesis generated was analyzed using chi-square statistical tool at 5% level of significance and the research questions were presented in frequency tables and percentages. The respondents under the study were One Hundred and fifty (150) students and thirty (30) teachers of selected secondary schools in Ondo, Ondo state, Nigeria. Findings revealed that high cost of computer hardware and software; weak infrastructure; lack of human skills and knowledge in ICT as well as lack of relevant software are the major barriers affecting the adoption of ICT in music as a subject in Nigerian secondary schools. Additionally, both teachers and students perceived ICT extremely helpful and effective in the process of teaching and learning. Based on the findings from the study, it was recommended that secondary schools in Nigeria should be given adequate funds for the essential paraphernalia required for its usage. Conversely, for appropriate use of ICTs, essential policies should be made to scaffold ICT-related methods that will encourage and motivate the interest of both the teachers and students.
EFFECTS OF APPROPRIATING LUHYIA MUSICAL STYLES TO THE AUTHENTICITY OF ANGLICAN HYMNS OF BUTERE DIOCESE, WESTERN KENYA
The Anglican Church of Kenya (ACK) liturgical hymns have been greatly influenced by African indigenous music traditions. Singing of the hymns with appropriated Luhyia musical styles has had a profound effect on its authenticity in terms of performance style, harmony, rhythm, texture, form and structure, yet no study has been done to assess the extent to which these musical elements are altered. By examining the liturgical singing of ACK hymns in Butere Diocese, this study sought to determine the effect of appropriating Luhyia musical styles on both structure and performance. The article is underpinned on Nzewi musical theory of change and continuity which states that, for change to occur and be determined, there has to be an established cultural frame of reference. The study entailed collection of qualitative data done through use of interview schedules, observation check-lists, field notebook and tape recorders. The collected data was then organized in topics of discussions, analyzed descriptively and presented thematically and by use of staff notation. The findings of the study revealed structural changes that causes divided congregational perception on the performance of appropriated ACK hymns with some congregants opposing the resultant dance movements invoked by instrumentation as lost Anglicanism, while others approving of this new style of hymnody. Therefore, in order to strike a balance between Anglicanism and forces of appropriation, the study recommends the ACK choir directors to regulate instrumentation in liturgical hymnody. It is the authors’ hope that findings of this study will encourage choir directors to compose ACK hymns within their diverse Kenyan indigenous idioms in order to localize their worship singing experiences more.
POETIC MEANING IMPLIED IN SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES IN SELECTED SEGMENTS OF THE SONG “GONGO LA MBOTO” BY DIAMOND PLATNUMZ AND MRISHO MPOTO
This paper employs Deconstruction and Relevance theories to read literary meanings in the song “Gongo la Mboto” by Diamond Platnumz and Mrisho Mpoto. The paper focuses on suprasegmental features that mark the artistes’ voice. This is because the style of singing and manner of articulation in songs and performance of oral poetry significantly shapes the meaning conveyed by the artiste in Bongo music. The analysis involves application of four basic steps; identification of the message, examination of how voice production techniques are applied during song production to shape the intended meaning, application of the theories to deduce implied meanings in the song, and finally explication of the literary value the song encompasses at audio level. This analysis responds to the growing concern to transcend literary criticism of songs as literary genres beyond the basic surface meaning. To focus on the meanings, the sound and melody determines the interpretation of the lyrics. This is a current trend which takes the advancement in media technology to define new vistas of criticism of literary meaning resulting from technologizing production and mediation of songs as literary discourses. Traditionally literary criticism of songs has tended to focus on the message conveyed in the lyrics with little attention to the sound and the effect it has on literary meaning.